Siem Reap has 98km of new roads and new sidewalks much of which has been paved with interesting felsic intrusive rocks from quarries in Shandong Province in China. The composition ranges from granodiorite to tonalite and is locally granophyric and pegmatitic. The intrusive consists dominantly of plagioclase, quartz, pyroxene and hornblende. Ovoid structures known as Miarolitic Cavities are evident in the sidewalks to the observant and indicates that the parental magma was hydrous. While no cavities have been observed in the sidewalks of Siem Reap it is quite possible that miarolitic cavities which retained cavities were not processed into saleable dimension stone. When the location of the quarry in Shandon Province is identified maybe a field trip is warranted.
The term miarolitic comes from the Italian miarole in reference to the mineral-rich pegmatite region of Baveno and Cuasso al Monte in northern Italy.
There are two types of miarolitic cavities observed. One has a coarsely pegmatitic core of intergrown quartz and plagioclase surrounded by a conspicuous pyroxene rim and the core may contain coarse tourmaline. The second type has a conspicuous leucocratic zone and a complex core of intergrown quartz and tourmaline. Where there are sufficient sections these features have a long axis that that is maybe 5 times the sectional axis.
A typical pegmatoidal feature. Note the mafic rim and complexly intergrown quartz and feldspar indicative of growth towards the centre. Note the large euhedral quartz and plagioclase crystals, rimmed by fine-grained mafic minerals which grew into the central zone. The core is filled with quartz and mafic minerals.
In some of the miarolitic cavities late stage UST textures are evident with euhedral quartz crystals vectored into the cavity. All of the granophyric textures are observed within or around these structures. It is suggested that these features are the result of segregation of a hydrous melt phase late in the crystallization history of the host intrusion. The granophyric textures visible in hand specimen likely resulted from the simultaneous crystallization of quartz and feldspar from the hydrous melt. How much water was in this residual phase – possibly as much as 5%. Elsewhere similar features have open crystal filled cavities and often contain minerals containing elements that are incompatible with typical silicate granitic mineralogy. Minerals containing lithium, rubidium, beryllium, boron, niobium, tantalum, tin, bismuth, fluorine and rare-earth elements can often be found in miarolitic cavities.
Miarolitic cavity with quartz-feldspar intergrowths developed as UST textures into the Miarolitic cavityClose up of the above.
While the miarolitic cavities are spectacular the intrusive shows rapid and widespread textural variation with pyroxene rich wispy layers and feldspar rich aggregates as shown below.
In conclusion these pegmatoidal features are mariolitic cavities which have been completely infilled by late stage minerals which would have incorporated much of the water which was incompatible with the bulk of the crystalizing magma. There is also a possibility that at least some of this hydrous phase escaped from the intrusion into the surrounding host rocks. The elongate habit of these features suggests that they may have acted as conduits for late stage hydrous melts and fluids.
Siem Reap road and sidewalk construction. A great improvement.
Seen nearly edgewise, the turbulent disk of gas churning around a black hole takes on a crazy double-humped appearance. The black hole’s extreme gravity alters the paths of light coming from different parts of the disk, producing the warped image. The black hole’s extreme gravitational field redirects and distorts light coming from different parts of the disk, but exactly what we see depends on our viewing angle. The greatest distortion occurs when viewing the system nearly edgewise. Credits: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/Jeremy Schnittman Download this and related multimedia from NASA Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio
I recently had a chat with the Artificial Intelligence application, ChatGPT. ChatGPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) is a chatbot launched by OpenAI in November 2022. It is built on top of OpenAI’s GPT-3 family of large language models, and is fine-tuned (an approach to transfer learning) with both supervised and reinforcement learning techniques.
JCM: Discuss the possible relationship between quantum entanglement and quantum gravity and the possible link to black holes
OPENAI: Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon that occurs when two or more particles become correlated in such a way that the state of one particle can influence the state of the other(s), even if the particles are separated by large distances. This phenomenon has been demonstrated experimentally and is widely accepted as a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.
There is ongoing research into the possible relationship between quantum entanglement and other areas of physics, including quantum gravity and black holes.
One area of investigation is the role that quantum entanglement may play in the behavior of spacetime at the scale of black holes. In particular, it has been suggested that the high degree of entanglement present in the matter that collapses to form a black hole could be connected to the seemingly “fuzzy” or ill-defined nature of the event horizon, the boundary surrounding a black hole beyond which nothing, not even light, can escape.
It is important to note that these ideas are still very much in the realm of theoretical speculation and are not yet fully understood. Further research is needed to determine the precise nature of any potential connection between quantum entanglement and quantum gravity, and to understand the role that entanglement may play in the behavior of black holes and other systems in the universe.
JCM: Is it possible that all of the contents of black holes are entangled. If this is so what are the implications for the transmission of data through a black hole
OPENAI: It is possible that the contents of a black hole could be highly entangled, as the matter that collapses to form the black hole may be expected to be highly correlated due to the strong gravitational forces involved. However, it is important to note that our current understanding of the behavior of matter and information within a black hole is very limited, and much of what we currently know about black holes is based on theoretical models and assumptions.
If it were possible to transmit data through a black hole, it is not clear how entanglement would affect this process. In general, entanglement is a phenomenon that occurs between two or more particles, and it is not clear how it would manifest in the context of a single, highly entangled system such as a black hole. Further research is needed to understand the role that entanglement may play in the behavior of black holes and the possible implications for the transmission of data through these objects.
JCM: If two blackholes merged and they had differing states of entanglement at a quantum level would the transformation to a single unified state of entanglement result in the release of energy and if so would that energy escape beyond the event horizon during the period of collision
OPENAI: It is not entirely clear how the process of two black holes merging would affect the entanglement of the constituent matter. It is possible that the strong gravitational forces involved in the merger process could disrupt the entanglement of the matter, potentially leading to the release of energy. However, this is purely theoretical at this point and further research would be needed to determine the precise nature of any such process and its potential consequences.
If energy were released during the merger of two black holes, it is not clear whether this energy would be able to escape beyond the event horizon. The event horizon is the boundary surrounding a black hole beyond which nothing, not even light, can escape. It is likely that any energy released during the merger process would be trapped within the event horizon and not be able to escape from the black hole.
JCM: Ultimately if all matter and energy in the universe was consumed by black holes would the entire universe then be in a state of quantum entanglement and what would be the implications. Would such massive black holes be stable or would highly entangled and massive black holes develop chaotic instabilities and what would the implications of this be.
OPENAI: If all matter and energy in the universe were to be consumed by black holes, it is not clear how the resulting state of the universe would be affected. It is possible that the matter and energy within the black holes would be highly entangled due to the strong gravitational forces involved in the formation of the black holes. However, it is not clear what the implications of this would be, as our current understanding of the behavior of matter and information within black holes is limited.
It is also not clear whether highly entangled and massive black holes would be stable or whether they would develop chaotic instabilities. This is an area of active research and is not yet fully understood. Further research is needed to understand the properties of highly entangled and massive black holes and to determine the potential implications of any instabilities that may occur.
Conclusion: This is reputed to be the most sophisticated AI system which is freely available. The responses are those that might be expected from an astrophysicist and shows knowledge of recent research in relation to the topic. None of the responses are unexpected. There is no indication of unique thought or creativity. We have come a very long way in generating a robust AI capable of generating responses that are difficult to detect as program generated. However while the rate of advance is impressive we have a long way to go to replace the creativity of biological systems – but likely we will achieve that in the near future. ChatGPT can generate compelling love poems and responses in biblical text form! One of the more impressive uses is in the generation of computer code.
A view from a drone into a crater at the 2021 Fagradalsfjall eruption, showing the transition from lava pond convection to low-intensity fountaining. Video by Leon Frey.
The Fagradalsfjall volcano in Iceland is located on the Reykjanes Peninsular which forms the onshore portion of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system and erupted several times in 2021.
Wadsworth et al report in Nature Communications on the capture of imagery and videography at unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution by tourists, volcano-enthusiasts, and media organizations. The video images reported here are for Wadsworth et al and are truly spectacular.
There is on average an eruption every 3–5 years in Iceland and prior to the 2021 Fagradalsfjall event, the last eruption occurred in 2014–2015. It was however not expected that a volcanic system on the Reykjanes Peninsula would erupt, as no eruptions had occurred in the region for almost 800 years. The Peninsula comprises four main volcanic systems, from west to east: the Reykjanes, Svartsengi, Krýsuvík, and Brennisteinsfjöll. Each of these systems is characterized by numerous strike-slip and normal faults, eruptive fissures and post-glacial lava flows.
A view from a drone of the 2021 Fagradalsfjall eruption, showing ‘lava flood’ phenomena. Video by Leon Frey.
While earthquake activity is high on the Peninsula eruptive periods occur infrequently; at intervals of 800–1000 years. These eruptions are generally effusive, although minor ash has been produced. On the Peninsula, the Fagradalsfjall volcanic system appears to have been the least active during postglacial times. The last prior eruption occurred over 6000 years ago and the system also has fewer faults and eruptions than the other volcanic systems in Iceland.
A view from a drone of the 2021 Fagradalsfjall eruption, showing moderate intensity fountaining feeding lava flows. Video by Leon Frey.
During the August 2021 eruption lava erupted mainly from a central cone, containing a lava pond, and flowed SE. An estimated 12 million cubic meters of lava was erupted. The lava near the vent was 20-40 m thick, but flows were 5-15 m thick in the Meradalir valley, outside the crater area.
The eruption comprises olivine tholeiite lava with whole rock MgO between 8.7 and 10.1 wt%. The macrocryst cargo comprises olivine up to Fo90, plagioclase up to An89, and Cr-rich clinopyroxene up to Mg# 89. Gabbro and anorthosite xenoliths are rare. Olivine-plagioclase-augite-melt (OPAM) barometry of the groundmass glass from tephra yield high equilibration pressures and suggest that this eruption is originally sourced from a deep (0.48±0.06 GPa) storage zone at the crust-mantle boundary.
Over the course of the eruption, Fagradalsfjall lavas changed significantly in source signature. The first erupted lavas were more depleted (K2O/TiO2 = 0.14, La/Sm = 2.1, 87Sr/86Sr = 0.703108, 143Nd/144Nd = 0.513017, 206Pb/204Pb = 18.730) and similar in composition to basalts previously erupted on the Reykjanes Peninsula. As the eruption progressed, the lavas became increasingly enriched (K2O/TiO2 = 0.27, La/Sm = 3.1, 87Sr/86Sr = 0.703183, 143Nd/144Nd = 0.512949, 206Pb/204Pb = 18.839), having unusual compositions for Reykjanes Peninsula lavas and similar only to enriched Reykjanes melt inclusions.
The major, trace, and radiogenic isotope compositions indicate that binary mixing controls the erupted basalt compositions. The mixing endmembers appear to be depleted Reykjanes melts, and enriched melts with compositions similar to enriched Reykjanes melt inclusions or Snaefellsnes alkali basalts.
Edward Marshall et al An overview of the geochemistry and petrology of the mantle-sourced Fagradalsfjall eruption, Iceland, EGU General Assembly 2022
During Vietnam and the Thai-Cambodian war the Border regions of Cambodia were heavily mined, with mines produced exclusively in China – at least 8 million of them. In the last 30 years the Cambodian Government and private de-mining charities have been systematically demining the country. Demining which is very labour intensive now achieves 250 km2 of clearance per year in Cambodia.
A total of five provinces and the capital had been declared mine-free as of December, as Cambodia’s 2025 goal of becoming mine-free approaches. Stung Treng, Kep, Prey Veng, Preah Sihanouk and Tbong Khmum were declared mine free in December 2022 and Kampong Cham, Takeo, Kampong Chhnang, Kampot, Svay Rieng, and Kandal are expected to be mine-free in 2023.
Provinces declared mine-free in 2022 (pink) and those expected to declared mine-free in 2023.
Unexploded ordnance (UXO, sometimes abbreviated as UO), unexploded bombs (UXBs), and explosive remnants of war (ERW or ERoW) are explosive weapons (bombs, shells, grenades, land mines, naval mines, cluster munition, and other munitions) that did not explode when they were employed and still pose a risk of detonation, sometimes many decades after they were used or discarded.
The major contributor to the Cambodian UXO legacy was the aerial bombing campaign conducted by the United States Airforce during the Vietnam War. The most intense bombing was area denial along the Vietnamese border and the extent of this bombing can be see in the following images. The total ordnance dropped was 2.8 Mt (6.1 billion pounds) comprising 2.5 million individual munitions carried in 230,000 sorties.
USAF Aerial bombing plotted by pounds of ordnance dropped. This includes conventional bombs, cluster munitions and rockets. USAF Aerial bombing plotted by quantity of ordnance dropped. This includes conventional bombs, cluster munitions and rockets. Integrated_Work_Plan_2020
The Arctic sea ice extent is a mere 1.8% less than the 1979-2019 mean and the third highest in the last 15 years.
Mapped Arctic sea ice extent (SIE) on 09/02/2020 was 14.69 million km2 which is 270,000 km2 or 1.8% less than the 1979-2019 average. This is largest sea ice extent on this day since 2009 and is within 1 standard deviation of the 1979-2019 mean ice extent.
The average sea ice accumulation rate in the last 5 days is 50,000 km2/day. The January 2020 rate of sea ice accumulation is the eight highest in the last 40 years and sea ice extent, volume and thickness are not expected to peak until mid-March 2020.
Sea Ice Extent
MASIE Arctic Sea Ice Extent and SIE Median for the period 1981-2010Arctic Sea Ice Extent (MASIE Database – see above image) for the month of February for the period 1979-2020 with the 1979-2019 average.Annual Arctic sea ice extent 2017-2020 and average and +/- 1SD for the 1917 to 2019
The daily sea ice extent data for February for the period of available data from 1979 to 2020 is shown above. The current sea ice extent is well within the 1 SD of the 1979-2019 average and is the highest since 2009. Arctic sea ice extent shows little trend since 2010.
Arctic sea ice extent is not expected to peak until mid-March 2020.
Daily sea ice extent plot for the period 2006 through 2020. Spot the trend!
The extent of Arctic sea ice varies from summer to winter. The sea ice extent shown here relies on data from the Multisensor Snow and Ice Mapping System (IMS) that runs at the National Ice Centre. The IMS product uses several satellite data sources including passive microwave, but it is also based on visual analysis and other data sources and undergoes a form of manual data fusion. The data reported here has a 1 km resolution and was sourced from the National Snow and Ice Data Centre
Novel Corona Virus. Corona viruses take their name from their crown-like halo.Credit: EYE OF SCIENCE/SPL
While the Novel Corona Virus (nCOV2019) remains a serious global infection, the media continues to report on nCOV2019 with remarkable ignorance. The common journalistic refrain is now citing increasing numbers of cases with alarm claiming that the infection is accelerating. Based on the reported number of cases, for the moment, little could be further from reality. The reported rate of increase in cases has dropped significantly. With the extended Chinese New Year (CNY) holiday now coming to an end, transmission rates may well now increase as travel resumes. The progression of the disease both inside and outside of China looks remarkably similar excepting in Hubei where it had likely spread well before a new highly infectious virus was recognized. In Hubei the initial reported death rate was high, likely reflecting poor early reporting and a medical system inundated with a large number of cases requiring intensive care.
Progression of nCOV2019 symptomatic cases by Chinese province plus Rest of the World
The disease progression for the reported data for all the Chinese provinces and the Rest of the World is shown in the graphic above. The similarity in the slope of disease progression suggests that the data is internally consistent and that commonly discussed under-reporting may not be occurring. The straight-line trends on the log scale simply reflects the logarithmic nature of disease progression for a disease with Ro>1. The chaotic trends at the beginning of the record likely reflects delayed reporting and possibly increased presentation of cases as the public became more aware of the severity of the disease after the 21st January.
The chart below of the distribution of nCOV2019 cases shows that the majority of cases are reporting in Hebei and supports the decision by the Chinese Government to lockdown not only Wuhan but the entire province.
Distribution of nCOV2019 cases by location
As would be expected the distribution of mortalities is predominantly in Hubei province.
Distribution of reported nCOV2019 deaths by location
The aggregate mortality rate is shown in the chart below (note the inverted Y-axis). After an initial surge in deaths (which may reflect delayed reporting) in Hubei province the mortality rate has stabilised at 2%, however this average hides some interesting details.
Average calculated rate of mortality for all reported cases.
The Mortality Rate varies significantly by region. Mortality in Hubei province was the highest at nearly 3%. This likely reflects the rapid progression of the disease before the appearance of nCOV2019 was recognized and before enough resources could be mobilized. The data also suggests that provinces with better resourced medical facilities were better able to manage patient care. An example of this would be Guangdong compared with Gansu. Guangdong reported more than 10 times the cases of Gansu, however Guangdong reported a mortality rate of 0.9% compared with that of Gansu at 2.4%. There are a number of other comparable comparisons in the data all reflecting likely difference in medical infrastructure.
The mortality data for the rest of the world indicates a death rate of less than 1%. While this data still reflects the earliest days in the disease progression, a number of conclusions can be drawn. nCOV2019 is highly contagious resulting in both viral pneumonia and secondary bacterial pneumonia. A high proportion of patients require hospitalization and oxygen therapy at least for several days. This places considerable strain on these facilities and available oxygen supplies. Were a pandemic to evolve outside China and medical facilities were overwhelmed then comparable mortality to Hubei could be anticipated.
nCOV2019 cases and mortality for China and the Rest of the World
With the end of the CNY and the resumption of travel in china it would seem likely that case numbers may well increase significantly. It is however also likely that many people will stay away from the workplace and remain in the provinces and many businesses many simply close for some time, moderating the impact.
Controlling nCOV2019 both within China and outside will be very challenging, particulalry in countries with poor medical infrastructure. It would seem reasonable that in parts of SE Asia and in Africa nCOV2019 there is a high probability that nCOV2019 will reach pandemic levels. It is also possible that nCOV2019 may be with us for some time, presenting as an annual epidemic until there is sufficient immunity with the global community.
While various experts have commented that surgical masks offer no protection, I would suggest that they are highly effective in keeping hands away from faces, which is likely the main form of transmission. In addition, prudent and regular hand washing should be encouraged and governments should prepare for nCOV2019 by adequately resourcing medical services. It should be remembered that SARS and MERS are both more contagious and more deadly but were successfully contained.
The Arctic sea ice extent is within 1 SD of the 1979-2019 mean and the highest since 2009 on this day. It is no surprise that this remains unreported in media. A plot of the sea extent time series from 2007 to 2020 shows no significant trend and lacks any evidence for a crisis in the Arctic.
Mapped Arctic sea ice extent (SIE) on 02/02/2020 was 14.42 million km2 which is 370,000 km2 or 2.5% less than the 1979-2019 average. This is largest sea ice extent on this day since 2009 and is within 1 SD of the 1979-2019 mean ice extent.
The average sea ice accumulation rate in the last 5 days is 55,000 km2/day. The 2019-2020 winter rate of sea ice accumulation is amongst the highest on record and sea ice extent, volume and thickness are not expected to peak until March, 2020.
MASIE Arctic Sea Ice Extent and SIE Median for the period 1981-2010Arctic Sea Ice Extent (MASIE Database – see above image) for the month of February for the period 1979-2020 with the 1979-2019 average.
The daily sea ice extent data for February for the period of available data from 1979 to 2020 is shown above. The current sea ice extent is well within the 1 SD of the 1979-2019 average and is the highest since 2009. Arctic sea ice extent shows little trend since 2010.
Arctic sea ice extent is not expected to peak until March 2020.
Annual Arctic sea ice extent 2017-2020 and average and +/- 1SD for the 1917 to 2019
What can be concluded is that the Arctic is not disappearing and that there is little evidence to support the endless claims over the decades that the Arctic sea ice will vanish during a coming summer. While CO2 has increased during this period sea ice extent has failed to decline as predicted. Where is the crisis in the Arctic as there seems to be no relationship between atmospheric CO2 and Arctic ice extent, volume or thickness (see earlier posts)?
The extent of Arctic sea ice varies from summer to winter. The sea ice extent shown here relies on data from the Multisensor Snow and Ice Mapping System (IMS) that runs at the National Ice Centre. The IMS product uses several satellite data sources including passive microwave, but it is also based on visual analysis and other data sources and undergoes a form of manual data fusion. The data reported here has a 1 km resolution and was sourced from the National Snow and Ice Data Centre
Over the last 20 years at least there have been near continuous press reports of the near-term disappearance of the Maldives, a series of coral atolls in the Indian Ocean. The chain of 26 atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to Addu Atoll in the south with an aggregate landmass of about 298 square kilometres (115 sq mi). It is one of the world’s most geographically dispersed sovereign states as well as the smallest Asian country by land area and population, with around 520,000 inhabitants. Malé is the capital and the most populated city, traditionally called the “King’s Island” for its central location.
The alarmist media claims that human induced global warming, resulting from carbon dioxide emissions is to blame for the imminent inundation.
If there is a crisis in the Maldives with the 500,000 about to soon become climate refugees, then it should be evident in the Google Earth imagery. We have compiled the satellite imagery for the Kin Island for every year from 1984 to 2016. You can determine if the Maldives is disappearing.
It can readily be seen in the tide gauge data for Mumbai in India and Fremantle in Western Australia that Indian Ocean sea levels have been rising steadily since record keeping began in the 1800s. There is no evidence in this data (the longest records in the Indian Ocean) that sea levels of recent times are rising catastrophically or have any relationship with atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.
Tide Gauge data from the port of Mumbai in India. (Data: NOAA, Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Service)Tide Gauge data from the port of Fremantle in Western Australia. (Data: NOAA, Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Service)
There is a risk of inundation in the Maldives however it is due to the natural rise of sea level and has nothing to do with human activity and no amount of expenditure will halt this rise in sea level. The Maldives should build to accommodate future sea level rise, rather than blame carbon dioxide emissions and seek rent from western countries.
Media reports would indicate that investors remain keen to invest with numerous new airports and resorts under construction.
Coronaviruses take their name from their crown-like halo.Credit: EYE OF SCIENCE/SPL
We started to track the Novel Corona Virus (nCOV2019) back in mid-January and based on the reported statistics developed a model for disease transmission and mortality. The training period for the model is shown in blue below and the underlying parameters have not been changed. Assumptions included a reduction in transmission rates as a consequence of public health measures in the near term plus a reduction in mortality rates as treatment methodologies improved and ultimately the recognition that some of the more exotic anti-virals had some impact. At the time we considered the model to be optimistic.
nCOV2019 reported cases by Chinese province. Data: John Hopkins
The disease progression for the reported data for all the Chinese provinces is shown in the graphic above. What is obvious is the similar slope to all the case trends (at the same axis scale, Hubei has the same slope as other province). The straight line trends on the log scale simply reflects the logarithmic nature of disease progression for a disease with Ro>1. The chaotic trends at the beginning of the record likely reflects delayed reporting. While there has been some comment that epidemiological models predict, based on an Ro of 2.2, 10 times the number of cases, the Chinese reported data would appear to be internally consistent and we are inclined to believe the data, until proven otherwise.
nCOV2019 reported cases and deaths (Data: John Hopkins) and model progression.
Comparison of the reported cases and deaths to the model is revealing. While the mortality rate shows very modest decline the rate of transmission appears to be declining significantly likely in response to the remarkable Chinese public health measures. Progression of the disease in countries outside of China is as would be anticipated. It is surprising that there are no reported cases in Africa. Considering the state of African medical services if nCOV2019 were to become established, the impacts on the continent could be more significant than in China and elsewhere in terms of totals cases and mortality.
The nCOV2019 outbreak is far from over but there are some positive developments in China as is evident in the data. We should not underestimate, that while the disease likely originated from the consumption of bats, the Chinese public and medical profession have behaved heroically.
China will now likely reflect on its public health investment and importantly on the interaction between the public and wild animals. The risk of new novel viruses will not be reduced until the consumption of exotic animals, particulalry wild mammals, is better controlled.
